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NAVTEX and Rules of Engagement in International Law
1040
Doç. Dr. Mustafa Çakır
Sahil devletleri her gün binlerce NAVTEX mesajı yayınlar — amacı yalnızca gemileri kayalıklardan ve tehlike bölgelerinden uzak tutmak olan uyarılardır. Bu kitap, seyir güvenliği için tasarlanmış bir sistemin, sessizce modern deniz devlet yönetiminin en açıklayıcı araçlarından birine dönüştüğünü savunmaktadır.
Ege, Güney Çin Denizi, Senkaku Adaları, Kerç Boğazı, Hürmüz Boğazı ve Kızıldeniz'deki vaka incelemelerinden yararlanan bu çalışma, devletlerin egemenlik iddialarını öne sürmek, kararlılık sinyali vermek ve silahlı çatışmanın eşiğinde seyreden krizleri yönetmek amacıyla NAVTEX yayınlarını giderek nasıl kullandığını; seyir uyarısı ile angajman kuralları arasındaki sınırı nasıl sınadığını ortaya koymaktadır.
BMDHS (UNCLOS), teamül hukuku ve deniz savaşı hukukuna dayanan ve yazarın kendi kapsamlı uygulama deneyimiyle beslenen bu eser, hem titiz bir hukuki çerçeve hem de bu çerçevenin nerede yetersiz kaldığına dair samimi bir değerlendirme sunmaktadır — devam etmekte olan 2026 Hürmüz Boğazı krizine ilişkin kapsamlı bir analiz de dahil olmak üzere. Kitap, somut reform önerileriyle sona ermektedir.
Deniz hukuku ile deniz güvenliğinin kesişim noktasında çalışan akademisyenler, uygulayıcılar ve deniz uzmanları için güncel ve özgün bir katkı amacındadır.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
KİTAP HAKKINDA III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V
PREFACE VII
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS IX
INTRODUCTION 1
PART I
Chapter 1. NAVTEX as a Legal and Technical Instrument 7
1.1. Historical Development of Maritime Warning Systems 7
1.2. Origins and Evolution of NAVTEX 7
1.3. Technical Structure and Operational Functions 8
1.4. NAVTEX within the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) 10
1.5. Legal Nature of Maritime Navigational Warnings 11
Chapter 2. NAVTEX, Unilateral Acts, and Rules of Engagement 13
2.1. Concept and Definition 13
2.2. Legal Effects of Unilateral Acts 14
2.3. Conditions for Binding Commitments 15
2.4. International Jurisprudence on Unilateral Declarations 15
2.5. NAVTEX as a Form of Unilateral State Practice 16
2.6. Concept of Rules of Engagement (ROE) 17
2.7. ROE and the Prohibition of the Use of Force 18
2.8. Crisis Management at Sea 19
2.9. Interaction between NAVTEX and Rules of Engagement 20
PART II
Chapter 3. Security Zones and the Limits of NAVTEX 23
3.1. Concept and Legal Basis 23
3.2. Types of Maritime Security Zones 24
3.2.1. Installation Safety Zones under Articles 60 and 80 24
3.2.2. Temporary Danger Areas and Military Exercise Zones 25
3.2.3. Broader Security and Defense Zones 26
3.2.4. Security Zones during Armed Conflict and Occupation 27
3.3 Relationship with Maritime Jurisdiction Zones 27
3.3.1. The Territorial Sea 28
3.3.2. The Exclusive Economic Zone 28
3.3.3. The Continental Shelf 29
3.3.4. The Structural Problem 29
3.4. State Practice and Customary International Law 30
Chapter 4. NAVTEX and Sovereignty Claims 33
4.1. Navigational Warnings and Sovereignty Claims 33
4.2. NAVTEX as a Tool of Maritime Governance 34
4.3. NAVTEX and EEZ Claims 35
4.4. NAVTEX and Continental Shelf Claims 36
4.5. Legal Limits of NAVTEX Usage 38
4.6. Abuse of Maritime Warning Systems 39
PART III
Chapter 5. Eastern Mediterranean and Aegean Sea 41
5.1. Historical Background of Regional Disputes 41
5.2. Blue Homeland (Mavi Vatan) Doctrine and Maritime Jurisdiction Areas 43
5.3. NAVTEX Crises between Greece and Türkiye 45
5.4. Legal Assessment 47
Chapter 6. South China Sea and East China Sea 49
6.1. Historical Background 49
6.2. China’s Maritime Claims, the Nine-Dash Line, and the 2016 Arbitral Award 50
6.2.1. The Tribunal’s Findings 50
6.2.2. China’s Response and the Compliance Gap 51
6.3. The East China Sea: Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands and Coast Guard Practice 52
6.3.1. Historical and Legal Background 52
6.3.2. Coast Guard Practice and the 2021 Coast Guard Law 53
6.3.3. The Absence of a Documented NAVTEX Dimension 55
6.4. Legal Assessment 56
Chapter 7. Kerch Strait 59
7.1. Historical and Legal Background 59
7.2. The 2003 Bilateral Regime and Its Contestation 60
7.3. Restrictions on Navigation 62
7.4. Military Operations and Maritime Warnings since 2022 63
7.5. NAVTEX Practice after 2014 and 2022 65
7.6. Legal Assessment 67
PART IV
Chapter 8. The Persian Gulf and Strait of Hormuz 69
8.1. Strategic Importance of Hormuz 69
8.2. Iranian Maritime Claims 70
8.3. Navigational Warnings and Security Alerts during the 2026 Closure 71
8.4. Mine Warfare Risks 73
8.5. Naval Interceptions and Blockade Issues 74
8.6. International Responses 75
8.7. Legal Assessment 76
Chapter 9. Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and Comparative Chokepoint Practice 79
9.1. Strategic Importance and the Houthi Campaign 79
9.2. Piracy and Maritime Security 81
9.3. Houthi Attacks and Maritime Warnings 82
9.4. Military Operations and Navigational Safety 83
9.5. NAVTEX and Commercial Shipping 85
9.6. Comparative Practice: The Gulf of Guinea and the Strait of Malacca 86
9.7. Legal Assessment 88
PART V
Chapter 10. Emerging Challenges and Reform 91
10.1. Autonomous Maritime Systems 91
10.2. Cyber Threats to Maritime Communications 92
10.3. Hybrid Warfare at Sea 93
10.4. Maritime Infrastructure Protection 94
10.5. Reforming Maritime Warning Systems: Gaps, Misuse, and the Case for Regulatory Modernization 95
10.6. Climate Change and New Maritime Routes 97
CONCLUSION 99
NAVTEX as a Legal Instrument 99
NAVTEX as a Strategic Instrument 100
NAVTEX, Rules of Engagement, and Crisis Management at Sea 101
NAVTEX and the Future of Maritime Security 102
Final Reflections 103
APPENDIX A 105
Event 1. Turkish petroleum exploration licences in the disputed Aegean shelf (1973) 105
Event 2. The Sismik I (Hora) seismic survey crisis (August 1976) 105
Event 3. The Scarborough Shoal standoff (12 April 2012) 106
Event 4. Japan’s acquisition of the Senkaku Islands (2012) 106
Event 5. Russian occupation and annexation of Crimea (February–March 2014) 107
Event 6. First China Coast Guard entry under the new Coast Guard Law (6 February 2021) 107
Event 7. Closure of the Kerch Strait approaches (April 2021) 108
Event 8. Russian invasion of Ukraine and Sea of Azov navigation suspension (24–25 February 2022) 108
Event 9. Sinking of the Helt (3 March 2022) 109
Event 10. Russian Novorossiysk mine-warning NAVTEX broadcast (18–19 March 2022) 109
Event 11. Seizure of the Galaxy Leader (19 November 2023) 110
Event 12. Twelve-state joint condemnation statement (3 January 2024) 110
Event 13. UN Security Council Resolution 2722 (10 January 2024) 111
Event 14. Operation Poseidon Archer strikes begin (11 January 2024) 111
Event 15. Establishment of Operation Aspides (February 2024) 112
Event 16. South China Sea Arbitration Award issued (12 July 2016) 112
Event 17. Kerch Strait naval incident (25 November 2018) 113
Event 18. The Oruç Reis/Kastellorizo crisis (July–August 2020) 113
Event 19. Erdoğan’s Athens visit and “friendship declaration” (December 2023) 114
Event 20. The Eternity C attack (9 July 2025) 114
Event 21. Red Sea attack pause begins (11 November 2025) 115
Event 22. US/Israeli strikes on Iran begin; 2026 Iran War commences (28 February 2026) 115
Event 23. IRGC closure and mining of the Strait of Hormuz (February–March 2026) 116
Event 24. Houthi resumption of Red Sea attacks (30 March 2026) 116
Event 25. US naval blockade of Iranian ports (13 April–29 May 2026) 117
Event 26. Initial Hormuz ceasefire (8 April 2026) 117
Event 27. Indefinite-duration Turkish NAVTEX (23–30 January 2026) 118
Event 28. Islamabad Memorandum of Understanding signed (14 June 2026) 118
APPENDIX B 119
REFERENCES 125
Treaties, Conventions, and International Instruments 125
Domestic Legislation 126
Cases and Arbitral Awards 126
IMO and Institutional Documents 127
Secondary Sources: Books and Articles 127
Secondary Sources: Institutional, News, and Online Reports 128
Doç. Dr. Mustafa Çakır
Sahil devletleri her gün binlerce NAVTEX mesajı yayınlar — amacı yalnızca gemileri kayalıklardan ve tehlike bölgelerinden uzak tutmak olan uyarılardır. Bu kitap, seyir güvenliği için tasarlanmış bir sistemin, sessizce modern deniz devlet yönetiminin en açıklayıcı araçlarından birine dönüştüğünü savunmaktadır.
Ege, Güney Çin Denizi, Senkaku Adaları, Kerç Boğazı, Hürmüz Boğazı ve Kızıldeniz'deki vaka incelemelerinden yararlanan bu çalışma, devletlerin egemenlik iddialarını öne sürmek, kararlılık sinyali vermek ve silahlı çatışmanın eşiğinde seyreden krizleri yönetmek amacıyla NAVTEX yayınlarını giderek nasıl kullandığını; seyir uyarısı ile angajman kuralları arasındaki sınırı nasıl sınadığını ortaya koymaktadır.
BMDHS (UNCLOS), teamül hukuku ve deniz savaşı hukukuna dayanan ve yazarın kendi kapsamlı uygulama deneyimiyle beslenen bu eser, hem titiz bir hukuki çerçeve hem de bu çerçevenin nerede yetersiz kaldığına dair samimi bir değerlendirme sunmaktadır — devam etmekte olan 2026 Hürmüz Boğazı krizine ilişkin kapsamlı bir analiz de dahil olmak üzere. Kitap, somut reform önerileriyle sona ermektedir.
Deniz hukuku ile deniz güvenliğinin kesişim noktasında çalışan akademisyenler, uygulayıcılar ve deniz uzmanları için güncel ve özgün bir katkı amacındadır.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
KİTAP HAKKINDA III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V
PREFACE VII
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS IX
INTRODUCTION 1
PART I
Chapter 1. NAVTEX as a Legal and Technical Instrument 7
1.1. Historical Development of Maritime Warning Systems 7
1.2. Origins and Evolution of NAVTEX 7
1.3. Technical Structure and Operational Functions 8
1.4. NAVTEX within the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) 10
1.5. Legal Nature of Maritime Navigational Warnings 11
Chapter 2. NAVTEX, Unilateral Acts, and Rules of Engagement 13
2.1. Concept and Definition 13
2.2. Legal Effects of Unilateral Acts 14
2.3. Conditions for Binding Commitments 15
2.4. International Jurisprudence on Unilateral Declarations 15
2.5. NAVTEX as a Form of Unilateral State Practice 16
2.6. Concept of Rules of Engagement (ROE) 17
2.7. ROE and the Prohibition of the Use of Force 18
2.8. Crisis Management at Sea 19
2.9. Interaction between NAVTEX and Rules of Engagement 20
PART II
Chapter 3. Security Zones and the Limits of NAVTEX 23
3.1. Concept and Legal Basis 23
3.2. Types of Maritime Security Zones 24
3.2.1. Installation Safety Zones under Articles 60 and 80 24
3.2.2. Temporary Danger Areas and Military Exercise Zones 25
3.2.3. Broader Security and Defense Zones 26
3.2.4. Security Zones during Armed Conflict and Occupation 27
3.3 Relationship with Maritime Jurisdiction Zones 27
3.3.1. The Territorial Sea 28
3.3.2. The Exclusive Economic Zone 28
3.3.3. The Continental Shelf 29
3.3.4. The Structural Problem 29
3.4. State Practice and Customary International Law 30
Chapter 4. NAVTEX and Sovereignty Claims 33
4.1. Navigational Warnings and Sovereignty Claims 33
4.2. NAVTEX as a Tool of Maritime Governance 34
4.3. NAVTEX and EEZ Claims 35
4.4. NAVTEX and Continental Shelf Claims 36
4.5. Legal Limits of NAVTEX Usage 38
4.6. Abuse of Maritime Warning Systems 39
PART III
Chapter 5. Eastern Mediterranean and Aegean Sea 41
5.1. Historical Background of Regional Disputes 41
5.2. Blue Homeland (Mavi Vatan) Doctrine and Maritime Jurisdiction Areas 43
5.3. NAVTEX Crises between Greece and Türkiye 45
5.4. Legal Assessment 47
Chapter 6. South China Sea and East China Sea 49
6.1. Historical Background 49
6.2. China’s Maritime Claims, the Nine-Dash Line, and the 2016 Arbitral Award 50
6.2.1. The Tribunal’s Findings 50
6.2.2. China’s Response and the Compliance Gap 51
6.3. The East China Sea: Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands and Coast Guard Practice 52
6.3.1. Historical and Legal Background 52
6.3.2. Coast Guard Practice and the 2021 Coast Guard Law 53
6.3.3. The Absence of a Documented NAVTEX Dimension 55
6.4. Legal Assessment 56
Chapter 7. Kerch Strait 59
7.1. Historical and Legal Background 59
7.2. The 2003 Bilateral Regime and Its Contestation 60
7.3. Restrictions on Navigation 62
7.4. Military Operations and Maritime Warnings since 2022 63
7.5. NAVTEX Practice after 2014 and 2022 65
7.6. Legal Assessment 67
PART IV
Chapter 8. The Persian Gulf and Strait of Hormuz 69
8.1. Strategic Importance of Hormuz 69
8.2. Iranian Maritime Claims 70
8.3. Navigational Warnings and Security Alerts during the 2026 Closure 71
8.4. Mine Warfare Risks 73
8.5. Naval Interceptions and Blockade Issues 74
8.6. International Responses 75
8.7. Legal Assessment 76
Chapter 9. Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and Comparative Chokepoint Practice 79
9.1. Strategic Importance and the Houthi Campaign 79
9.2. Piracy and Maritime Security 81
9.3. Houthi Attacks and Maritime Warnings 82
9.4. Military Operations and Navigational Safety 83
9.5. NAVTEX and Commercial Shipping 85
9.6. Comparative Practice: The Gulf of Guinea and the Strait of Malacca 86
9.7. Legal Assessment 88
PART V
Chapter 10. Emerging Challenges and Reform 91
10.1. Autonomous Maritime Systems 91
10.2. Cyber Threats to Maritime Communications 92
10.3. Hybrid Warfare at Sea 93
10.4. Maritime Infrastructure Protection 94
10.5. Reforming Maritime Warning Systems: Gaps, Misuse, and the Case for Regulatory Modernization 95
10.6. Climate Change and New Maritime Routes 97
CONCLUSION 99
NAVTEX as a Legal Instrument 99
NAVTEX as a Strategic Instrument 100
NAVTEX, Rules of Engagement, and Crisis Management at Sea 101
NAVTEX and the Future of Maritime Security 102
Final Reflections 103
APPENDIX A 105
Event 1. Turkish petroleum exploration licences in the disputed Aegean shelf (1973) 105
Event 2. The Sismik I (Hora) seismic survey crisis (August 1976) 105
Event 3. The Scarborough Shoal standoff (12 April 2012) 106
Event 4. Japan’s acquisition of the Senkaku Islands (2012) 106
Event 5. Russian occupation and annexation of Crimea (February–March 2014) 107
Event 6. First China Coast Guard entry under the new Coast Guard Law (6 February 2021) 107
Event 7. Closure of the Kerch Strait approaches (April 2021) 108
Event 8. Russian invasion of Ukraine and Sea of Azov navigation suspension (24–25 February 2022) 108
Event 9. Sinking of the Helt (3 March 2022) 109
Event 10. Russian Novorossiysk mine-warning NAVTEX broadcast (18–19 March 2022) 109
Event 11. Seizure of the Galaxy Leader (19 November 2023) 110
Event 12. Twelve-state joint condemnation statement (3 January 2024) 110
Event 13. UN Security Council Resolution 2722 (10 January 2024) 111
Event 14. Operation Poseidon Archer strikes begin (11 January 2024) 111
Event 15. Establishment of Operation Aspides (February 2024) 112
Event 16. South China Sea Arbitration Award issued (12 July 2016) 112
Event 17. Kerch Strait naval incident (25 November 2018) 113
Event 18. The Oruç Reis/Kastellorizo crisis (July–August 2020) 113
Event 19. Erdoğan’s Athens visit and “friendship declaration” (December 2023) 114
Event 20. The Eternity C attack (9 July 2025) 114
Event 21. Red Sea attack pause begins (11 November 2025) 115
Event 22. US/Israeli strikes on Iran begin; 2026 Iran War commences (28 February 2026) 115
Event 23. IRGC closure and mining of the Strait of Hormuz (February–March 2026) 116
Event 24. Houthi resumption of Red Sea attacks (30 March 2026) 116
Event 25. US naval blockade of Iranian ports (13 April–29 May 2026) 117
Event 26. Initial Hormuz ceasefire (8 April 2026) 117
Event 27. Indefinite-duration Turkish NAVTEX (23–30 January 2026) 118
Event 28. Islamabad Memorandum of Understanding signed (14 June 2026) 118
APPENDIX B 119
REFERENCES 125
Treaties, Conventions, and International Instruments 125
Domestic Legislation 126
Cases and Arbitral Awards 126
IMO and Institutional Documents 127
Secondary Sources: Books and Articles 127
Secondary Sources: Institutional, News, and Online Reports 128
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